A Swiss postcard of 'The European War' in 1914. The Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary face enemies to the east, west, and south. Germany is fighting the war it tried to avoid, battling Russia to the east and France to the west. Germany had also hoped to avoid fighting England which came to the aid of neutral (and prostrate) Belgium, and straddles the Channel. Austria-Hungary also fights on two fronts, against Russia to the east and Serbia and Montenegro to the south. Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, declared neutrality, and looks on. Other neutral nations include Spain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. Japan enters from the east to battle Germany. The German Fleet stays close to port in the North and Baltic Seas while a German Zeppelin targets England. The Austro-Hungarian Fleet keeps watch in the Adriatic. Turkey is not represented, and entered the war at the end of October, 1914; Italy in late May, 1915.
Image text: Der Europäische KriegThe European WarReverse:Kriegskarte No. 61. Verlag K. Essig, BaselKunstanstalt (Art Institute) Frobenius A.G. Basel
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his wife Tsaritsa Alexandra, a detail from a portrait of the Russian imperial family in 'An Ambassador's Memoirs' by Maurice Paléologue, the last French Ambassador to the Russian Court.
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Stereo card of French Generals, Henri Philippe Pétain, Paul Henrys, and Émile Fayolle and French Raymond President Poincaré in the Verdun sector. Pétain is on the left and Poincaré behind him. Henrys is in the foreground, back to the camera, and Fayolle on the right.
Image text: No.2 Pétain, Poincaré, Henrys, Fayolle devant VerdunPages d'Histoire OculaireReverse:Stéréo Édition F Meiller - Vitry-sur-Seine
Metal grave marker of Deputy Paymaster Paul Wolke and Infantryman Paul Lindemann, died June 20 and 22, respectively, 1918. From the Laventie German Military Cemetery, Laventie, France. © 2013 by John M. Shea
Image text: Zahlmeister Stellvertr[eter]Paul Wolke† 20.6.1918Deputy PaymasterPaul Wolke† June 20, 1918Paul LindemannMusketier† 22.6.1918Paul LindemannInfantryman† June 22, 1918
". . . In the Argonne the Germans attacked on the 20th June [1915], and a series of fights went on until the 14th July, both sides losing very heavily; and as a consequence General Sarrail was removed on the 22nd July from the command of the French Third Army, and replaced by General Humbert. In Woevre there was almost continuous trench warfare in the woods of Ailly, Mort Mare and Le Pretre, whilst in Alsace the enemy was driven out of Metzeral, and Barrenkopf was captured. These local attacks, necessary as they were until a general offensive could be mounted, resulted in very heavy casualties and absorbed a vast quantity of the limited munitions available. The lack of any signal success somewhat shook the reputation of General Joffre with his Government, but in no way depressed the morale of his troops, as was to be shown, seven months later, at Verdun." ((1), more)
"I told Alexeiev how interested you were in military affairs and of those details you asked for in your last letter,' Nicholas wrote on June 7, 1916 (O.S.). 'He [Alexeiev] smiled and listened silently.' Alexeiev's silence concealed his worry over the possible leakage of his plans. After the abdication he explained, 'When the Empress's papers were examined, she was found to be in possession of a map indicating in detail the disposition of the troops along the entire front. Only two copies were prepared of this map, one for the Emperor and one for myself. I was very painfully impressed. God knows who may have had use of this map.'" ((2), more)
"The harsh realization that France was running out of men added to the urgency of Pétain's reforms. On June 20 [1917] the General Staff in Paris published a study analyzing the effects of France's looming shortage of soldiers. The study stated:'It is not necessary to deny that after three years of war and after having supported until now the greater part of the common effort, the French army has lost many of its offensive qualities. The crisis of personnel, which can only become more acute with each passing day, can only aggravate the situation. Consequently, the day is approaching when a large offensive by us must be curtailed because we cannot fill the vacancies in our units.'" ((3), more)
"Laying tapes over ground sounds delightfully simple; but throw in innumerable shell-holes and small ponds, wire and iron stakes, the possibility of 'stopping one,' or of meeting prowling Germans; mix all these on a dark night, and the operation of distributing 'millinery'—as Jones called it—by the compass was, to our minds, a good sample of hell. The tapes must not be too short, or they would not guide sufficiently. If they were too long they might be discovered, and the whole show given away. We laid over thirty tapes, some of them twice as we found they had been shifted—patrols were not too careful when they crossed them. Wire had to be cut away, or cleared to one side to make a path, as the tape had to be run out straight; someone had his work cut out to stop sentries loosing off when the tins, cans and old iron rattle on the wire when we cut it away." ((4), more)
(1) From a summary of 'the French Front: June-September 1915' by Brigadier-General Sir James E. Edmonds in his history of British military operations. French Commander in Chief Joseph Joffre continued a strategy of attacks — which he referred to as nibbling at the enemy — even though it had become clear that success would require adequate artillery. With a shell shortage less serious than the British (and especially the Russians), the French still had inadequate heavy artillery and shells for major offensives. Relieved of command in the Argonne, General Sarrail would later be given command on the Salonica Front. The Battle of Verdun began on February 21, 1916.
Military Operations France and Belgium, 1915, Vol. II, Battles of Aubers Ridge, Festubert, and Loos by J. E. Edmonds, page 109, copyright © asserted, publisher: Macmillan and Co., Limited, publication date: 1928
(2) Excerpt from Robert Massie's Nicholas and Alexandra that begins with part of a June 20, 1916 (June 7 Old Style) letter from Tsar Nicholas II to his wife Tsaritsa Alexandra. General Mikhail Vasiliyevich Alekseyev was Chief of Staff of Stavka, the Russian High Command, from 1915 to 1917, from the time when Nicholas designated himself Commander in Chief of the Russian armed forces. Nicholas requested that his wife not share military information with anyone, but she did so with the monk Rasputin so that he might give his advice and blessing to the Tsar's plans. Nicholas abdicated on March 15, 1917 after the February Revolution. His wife, the Empress, though raised for much of her life in England, was German-born, and was widely believed to be sympathetic to Germany if not actively working in its interest.
Nicholas and Alexandra by Robert K. Massie by Robert K. Massie, page 357, copyright © 1967, renewed 1995 by Robert K. Massie, publisher: Random House, publication date: 2011
(3) French general Henri Philippe Pétain was given command of the French Army on May 15, 1917 after the failure of Commander in Chief Robert Nivelle's spring offensive, and as mutinies spread in the army, ultimately affecting nearly half the army. Pétain assured the soldiers he would not squander their lives, and that France would build the materiel—tanks, heavy artillery, aircraft—that could bring victory. He also set about reforming the army, ensuring officers mingled with their men, and recognizing the danger presented by France's heavy losses since the beginning of the war.
Pyrrhic Victory; French Strategy and Operations in the Great War by Robert A. Doughty, page 368, copyright © 2005 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, publisher: Harvard University Press, publication date: 2005
(4) Excerpt from the entry for June 20, 1918 from the writings — diaries, letters, and memoirs — of Captain J. C. Dunn, Medical Officer of the Second Battalion His Majesty's Twenty-Third Foot, the Royal Welch Fusiliers, and fellow soldiers who served with him. Dunn's Battalion had been tasked with a raid on the German line, one for which they practiced six days before preparing as described. The raid was carried out on the 22nd. 'It was a thoroughly bad Show from start to finish.'
The War the Infantry Knew 1914-1919 by Captain J.C. Dunn, page 488, copyright © The Royal Welch Fusiliers 1987, publisher: Abacus (Little, Brown and Company, UK), publication date: 1994
