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Russian soldiers resting in the field. Card postmarked November 28, 1916.
Detail from a 1898 map of St. Petersburg, the Russian capital, from a German atlas. Central St Petersburg, or Petrograd, is on the Neva River. Key landmarks from top to bottom include the Peter and Paul Fortress, which served as a prison, Nevski Prospect, a primary boulevard south of the Fortress, and the Mariyinsky Theater.
A call to Italians to buy war bonds to help fund the powerful weapons needed for the last push to Trieste, a mere 25 kilometers from the Italian front lines. It pays 5%, after all, tax free, for an effective rate of 5.55%!
German postcard map of the Western Front in Flanders, looking south and including Lille, Arras, Calais, and Ostend. In the Battle of the Yser in October, 1914, the Belgian Army held the territory south of the Yser Canal, visible between Nieuport, Dixmude, and Ypres (Ypern). Further north is Passchendaele, which British forces took at great cost in 1917.
Map of Syria, Palestine, Turkey, and Mesopotamia from the Baedeker 1912 travel guide Palestine and Syria with Routes through Mesopotamia and Babylonia and with the Island of Cyprus.
"We hear that Kornilov has been arrested, and do not know whether to be sad or glad; our loyalties are so evenly divided. Kerensky has been our hero since the political revolution in March 1917, but it was thanks to Kornilov that our Armies — especially our beloved 8th Army — achieved such success in Galicia during the recent summer campaigns." ((1), more)
"Russians might have resisted Bolshevism if there had been a real alternative; but the collapse of capitalism was there for all to see. Wages became meaningless: strikes came, one after another, and caused a fall of fifty per cent in industrial production in the summer of 1917.The principal problem in all this was that wages could not be translated into food. Industry had done well enough from the inflation, at least in its earlier stages, before the autumn of 1916. Agriculture was not in a position to profit nearly as much, and the result of inflation was to drive the bulk of food-producers back into the subsistence-economy from which they had only recently emerged, if at all. Food-deliveries to the towns ran down after November, 1916; Petrograd had, when the March Revolution occurred, only a few days' grain-reserves, and the bread-riots that sparked off the revolution continued to detonate revolutionary explosions throughout the summer and autumn." ((2), more)
"On 19 September [1917], Cadorna halted the battle and ordered all units onto the defensive. The Italians had taken 166,000 casualties, including 40,000 dead, of whom 25,000 died on San Gabriele for trivial gains. Some 400 of the 600 battalions involved in the battle had lost one-half to two-thirds of their strength. Cadorna's and Capello's actions in Eleventh Battle were so careless and self-destructive that historians have struggled to account for them. In truth, the two men acted fully in character. Cadorna's battle plans always tended to incoherence, his command often slackened fatally in the course of offensives, and he had never been able to control Capello (except by banishing him from the Isonzo). Capello's disobedience at critical moments was equally familiar." ((3), more)
"The British smashed the German line east of Ypres on an eight-mile front, September 20th [1917], penetrating the center to the depth of a mile and taking 3,000 prisoners. Two days later, massed attacks on the new British positions were made by the Germans, with only slight success and at a frightful cost. British aircraft swept in flocks over the wide area of the battle, dropping tons of explosives at Roulers, Menin, and Ledeghem. Ten German airships were brought to earth, eight were put out of control, while the British lost 12 machines." ((4), more)
". . . Osman-Chefket Bey was in great fear lest I make revelations to the Diplomatic Corps that would involve him and ultimately bring his head to the block, politically speaking, for his part in the atrocities. . . .Just before my departure, as was natural, I went to take leave of Enver. He received me with the same affectionate cordiality as of old. Accompanying me to the door of his study when I left, he told me he had already written a personal letter about me to Fesi Pasha of the Second Army commending me to him. I did my best to look pleased, though—from my ever useful friend, before mentioned—I already knew at least one sentence of that letter: 'De Nogales Bey must never return from that region.' This was the customary formula of the Young Turks when they desired to get rid of anyone on the quiet! All this took place about the end of September, 1917." ((5), more)
(1) Excerpt from the entry for September 4, (September 17, New Style), 1917 from the diary of Florence Farmborough, an English nurse serving with the Russian Red Cross, on the arrest of General Lavr Kornilov for plotting a military coup against the government of Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky. Kerensky had appointed Kornilov Supreme Commander of the Russian Army on July 31, 1917 following his relative success in the Russian offensive earlier in the month. Although claiming to support the Revolution, Kornilov opposed many of its reforms, and wanted to bring back the death penalty for deserters from the army, many of whom had simply left the front. He had begun planning a coup with conservative officers, financiers, and industrialists in the first days of the revolution. Kornilov asked that command of the government as well as the military be transferred to himself specifically to prevent a Bolshevik coup. Kerensky had already held the titles of Justice Minister and War Minister when he asked the government to hand him power to deal with Kornilov.
Nurse at the Russian Front, a Diary 1914-18 by Florence Farmborough, page 315, copyright © 1974 by Florence Farmborough, publisher: Constable and Company Limited, publication date: 1974
(2) Major events that followed the Russian Revolution of February (March New Style) 1917 — the Kerensky Offensive of June and July, the suppression of Bolsheviks and their leader Vladimir Lenin, the right-wing coup attempt by General Lavr Kornilov, the release and arming of the Bolsheviks to defend the government and capital of Petrograd from Kornilov — all took place against a backdrop of demonstrations, food shortages, rising unemployment, and a collapsing economy.
The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 by Norman Stone, pp. 291–292, copyright © 1975 Norman Stone, publisher: Charles Scribner's Sons, publication date: 1975
(3) In September 1917 Italian commander in chief Luigi Cadorna called a halt to his Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo since Italy had entered the war in May 1915. In four Isonzos in the first calendar year, five in 1916, and two more by September 1917, Cadorna had crossed the Isonzo River into Austria-Hungary, taken some territory, and cost hundreds of thousands of casualties. Beyond each plateau and mountain peak another awaited. General Luigi Capello had earned his nickname of 'the Butcher' in Italy's conquest of Libya.
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915-1919 by Mark Thompson, page 282, copyright © 2008 Mark Thompson, publisher: Basic Books, publication date: 2009
(4) In the September 20, 1917 Battle of the Menin Road, an action in the Third Battle of Ypres, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces advanced an average of 1,250 yards (rather less than our author's mile) after a tremendous artillery barrage that left many of the German defenders dead, wounded, or stunned. On the 20th and subsequent days, the British took the Gheluvelt Plateau.
King's Complete History of the World War by W.C. King, page 338, copyright © 1922, by W.C. King, publisher: The History Associates, publication date: 1922
(5) Rafael de Nogales was a Venezuelan mercenary and officer in the Ottoman Army who had taken part in the Turkish attack on the Armenian rebellion in the city of Van, part of the Turkish government's genocidal attacks on its Armenian citizens. With Turkish Interior Minister Mehmed Talaat Pasha and Naval Minister Ahmed Djemal Pasha, War Minister Ismail Enver Pasha ruled Turkey during World War I. Both contemporaries — including the German consul and Henry Morgenthau, American Ambassador at Constantinople from 1913 to 1916 — and later historians including Turkish historian Taner Akçam, lay primary responsibility for the Armenian Genocide on Talaat. The Young Turks, including Enver, had seized power in 1908.
Four Years Beneath the Crescent by Rafael De Nogales, pp. 390–391, copyright © 1926, by Charles Scribner's Sons, publisher: Charles Scribner's Sons, publication date: 1926
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